EXPLANATIONS

Explanation

Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) Explained: Standards, Bands, and WPA

Wi-Fi shares the same MAC + EtherType + Payload frame format as Ethernet, but on the wireless side it faces a fundamenta...

Explanation

Ethernet Explained: Frames, MAC Addresses, and Switching

Ethernet has survived nearly 50 years as effectively the only choice for wired LAN at L2. Starting from the premise that...

Explanation

IPsec Explained: Tunnel/Transport Modes and IKE

IPsec is a family of protocols that encrypts and authenticates IP packets themselves at L3, so — unlike TLS, which apps...

Explanation

TCP/IP Explained: 4-Layer Model and TCP vs UDP

TCP/IP refers both to the protocol family that powers the Internet and to the four-layer reference model that organizes...

Explanation

VPN Explained: IPsec, OpenVPN, and WireGuard Compared

A VPN (Virtual Private Network) is a technology that builds a virtual, encrypted private circuit on top of a public netw...

Explanation

OSI Reference Model Explained: 7 Layers and TCP/IP Mapping

The ISO Basic Reference Model — better known as the OSI 7-layer model — is the conceptual model standardized as ISO/IEC...

Explanation

OSINT Explained: Methods, Tools, and Real Examples

OSINT (Open Source Intelligence) is the practice and culture of investigating people, organizations, and infrastructure...

Explanation

SSL/TLS Explained: HTTPS Encryption and Certificates

SSL/TLS provides encryption, authentication, and tamper-detection for Internet traffic — the 'S' in HTTPS, and the found...

Explanation

IP Explained: IPv4, IPv6, Subnetting, and Routing

IP (Internet Protocol) is the addressing and packet-forwarding protocol at the heart of the TCP/IP stack. This article w...

Explanation

DNS Explained: Name Resolution and Record Types

DNS is the distributed database that translates human-friendly domain names into the IP addresses computers actually use...

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Metasploit Framework Explained: Usage and Pentest Workflow

Metasploit Framework is the open-source attack framework for penetration testing and vulnerability validation. Started b...

Explanation

ICMP Explained: ping, traceroute, and Message Types

ICMP is the control protocol that reports errors and route conditions across IP networks. This article walks through how...